Answer to review questions of Systems Analysis & Design-10th Edition

Chapter 1: Systems, Roles, and Development Methodologies

1. List the advantages of using systems analysis and design techniques in approaching computerized information systems for business.

   System analysis and design techniques provide the analyst with a systematic procedure for analyzing data input, UML diagrams or data flow, and information output; furthermore, the techniques can improve the functioning of business.

2. Why is security of information systems an important consideration in systems development and design?

   Developing privacy controls and security by design, from the outset of systems design, is much more desirable and effective than adding it to older, legacy systems.

3. List three roles that the systems analyst is called upon to play. Provide a definition for each one.

   The three roles of a system analyst are:

   • Consultant: Hired from outside an organization to address information systems issues within that organization.
   • Supporting Expert: Serves as a resource for those who are managing a systems project.
   • Change Agent: An analyst who serves as a catalyst for change, develops a plan for change, and works with others in facilitating that change.

4. What personal qualities are helpful to the systems analyst? List them.

   Personal qualities helpful to systems analysts include:

   • Problem-solving abilities
   • Communication skills
   • Computer experience
   • Self-discipline and self-motivation
   • Project management capabilities

5. List and briefly define the seven phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC).

   The seven phases of the SDLC are:

   • Identifying problems, opportunities, and objectives: Recognizing problems and opportunities confronting the business and determining business objectives.
   • Determining information requirements: Understanding what information users need to perform their jobs.
   • Analyzing system needs: Structured analysis of information needs and decision making.
   • Designing the recommended system: Logical design of the information system.
   • Developing and documenting software: Structured development of software and documentation.
   • Testing and maintaining the system: Testing and revising the system.
   • Implementing and evaluating the system: Training users and reviewing the system.

6. What are CASE tools used for?

   The reasons for using CASE tools are:

   • Increasing analyst productivity
   • Improving analyst-user communication
   • Integrating life cycle activities

7. Define what is meant by the agile approach.

   The agile approach is based on values, principles, and core practices. It values communication, simplicity, feedback, and courage.

8. What is the meaning of the phrase “the planning game”?

   The planning game spells out rules that can help formulate the agile development team’s relationship with their business customers. The rules are a basis for building and maintaining a relationship.

9. What are the stages in agile development?

   The five stages in agile development are exploration, planning, iterations to the first release, productionizing, and maintenance.

10. What is Scrum?

    Scrum is an agile method focused on extremely quick releases.

11. Define the term object-oriented analysis and design.

    Object-oriented analysis and design are techniques intended to facilitate the development of systems that must change rapidly in response to dynamic business environments.

12. What is UML?

    UML is the Unified Modeling Language, a standardized object-oriented language used to break down a system into a use case model.

13. What is open source software?

    Open source software is when many users and programmers can study, share, and modify the code, or computer instructions.

14. What is the role of a systems analyst in the development of open source software?

    They must first prove themselves worthy members of the group, and then strike up and maintain relationships that are mutually beneficial.

15. List two reasons an organization may want its analysts to participate in an open source community.

    Two reasons that an organization may want its analysts to participate in an open source community are curiosity about software benefits and to achieve collective design.

Chapter 2: Understanding and Modeling Organizational Systems

1. What are the three groups of organizational fundamentals that carry implications for the development of information systems?

   The three groups of organizational fundamentals include:

   • Level of management
   • Design of organizations
   • Other factors: leadership style, technology, and organizational subcultures

2. What is meant by saying that organizational subsystems are interrelated and interdependent?

   Organizational subsystems are said to be interrelated and interdependent when a change in one subsystem affects other subsystems.

3. Define the term organizational boundary.

   An organizational boundary separates the system from its environment.

4. What are the two main purposes for feedback in organizations?

   The two main purposes of feedback are (a) system control and (b) formulating and revising organizational goals.

5. Define openness in an organizational environment.

   Openness refers to an organization with a relatively free flow of information within its boundaries.

6. Define closedness in an organizational environment.

   Closedness refers to an organization with relatively little flow of information within its boundaries.

7. What is the difference between a traditional organization and a virtual one?

   A traditional organization is one that has a physical location, whereas a virtual organization has parts of the organization in different locations, connected electronically.

8. What are the potential benefits and a drawback of a virtual organization?

   The benefits of a virtual organization are: reduced costs of physical facilities, a more rapid response to customer needs, and flexibility for employees to care for children or aging parents. A drawback is that it is difficult to meet the social needs of virtual workers.

9. Give an example of how systems analysts could work with users as a virtual team.

   The example provided in the text allows the analyst to see the software and hardware configuration of the user requesting help.

10. What are enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems?

    Enterprise systems, often referred to as Enterprise Resource Planning systems, is a term used to describe an integrated organizational (enterprise) information system.

11. What is the main difference between doing business process analysis for ERP and for other types of systems?

    One major difference is that rather than redesigning business processes based on a logical analysis of those processes and how they support the business strategy, and then choosing the IT to support those processes, a large installation of ERP can reverse this by requiring the implementation of new business processes that are embedded in the technology provided.

12. What problems do analysts often encounter when they try to implement an ERP package?

    One problem that the analyst encounters when trying to implement an ERP package is the difficulty of trying to analyze a system currently in use and then fit an ERP model to the system. Another problem is that the business model does not always match the ERP functionality. The impact is delayed implementation, higher costs, and the loss of user confidence.

13. What are the two symbols on a use case diagram and what do they represent?

    The two symbols are an actor, the role of a user of the system, and the use case representing a sequence of transactions in a system.

14. What is a use case scenario?

    A use case scenario is a text description of the flow of events in a use case. There may be alternate scenarios representing conditions that produce variations on the primary scenario.

15. What are the three main parts of a use case scenario?

    The three main parts of a use case scenario are the use case identifiers and initiators; the steps performed; and the conditions, assumptions, and questions.

16. What are the four steps in creating a use case description?

    Use case descriptions are created with these four steps:

    • Use agile stories, problem definition objectives, user requirements, or a features list.
    • Ask about the tasks that must be done.
    • Determine if there are any iterative or looping actions.
    • The use case ends when the customer goal is complete.

17. What are the five altitude metaphors for describing use case on different levels? What do they represent?

    The five altitude metaphors and what they represent are:

    • White (like clouds): Enterprise level
    • Kite: Business unit or department level
    • Blue (sea level): User goals
    • Indigo (or fish): Functional or subfunctional
    • Black (or clam): Most detailed

18. What does a process represent on a context-level data flow diagram?

    A process represents the whole system on a context-level data flow diagram.

19. What is an entity on a data flow diagram?

    An entity on a data flow diagram represents an entity that supplies and receives information that is outside of the system.

20. What is meant by the term entity-relationship diagram?

    An entity-relationship diagram is a graphical depiction of organizational system elements and the association among the elements.

21. What symbols are used to draw E-R diagrams?

    The three symbols used for E-R diagrams are:

    • A rectangle to show the entity
    • A diamond in a rectangle to join two many-to-many entities
    • An oval in a rectangle to represent an attribute, especially a repeating group

22. List the types of E-R diagrams.

    The types of E-R diagrams are:

    • One-to-one relationship
    • One-to-many relationship
    • Many-to-one relationship
    • Many-to-many relationship

23. How do an entity, an associative entity, and an attributive entity differ?

    An entity represents a person, place, or thing. An associative entity can only join two fundamental entities. An attributive entity is used to represent an attribute of an entity, often a repeating group, and cannot exist without being linked to a fundamental entity.

24. List the three broad, horizontal levels of management in organizations.

    The three levels of management in organizations are:

    • Operations management
    • Middle management
    • Strategic management

25. Who should be involved in collaborative design of information systems?

    Those who should be involved in collaborative design are:

    • Those in lower ranks of the organization
    • For external collaborations, relevant stakeholders

26. How can understanding organizational subcultures help in the design of information systems?

    Organizational subcultures affect information requirements, information availability, use of information, and individual behavior.

27. How can systems analysis team members use Slack to build or reinforce an organizational culture or subculture?

    By adopting an employer-sanctioned social media platform to foster collaboration and communication among office workers. It may be more effective than email since employees may interact in a less formal setting, which could help team members to avoid the difficulty of expressing themselves face-to-face in a meeting or even one to one.

Chapter 3: Project Management

1. What are the five major project fundamentals?

   The five major project fundamentals are:

   • Project initiation
   • Determining project feasibility
   • Scheduling of the project
   • Managing activities
   • Managing team members

2. List three ways to find out about problems or opportunities that might call for a systems solution.

   Three ways to find out about problems or opportunities are:

   • Checking output
   • Observing or researching employee behavior
   • Listening to feedback from external sources

3. List the five criteria for systems project selection.

   The five criteria for systems project selection are:

   • Management backing
   • Adequate time frame
   • Alignment with organizational goals
   • Adequate resources on the part of the analyst and the organization
   • The worthiness of the project

4. Define technical feasibility.

   A project is technically feasible if the technology is available and capable of meeting users’ requests.

5. Define economic feasibility.

   A project is economically feasible if costs do not overshadow benefits.

6. Define operational feasibility.

   A project is operationally feasible if the proposed system will operate and be used once it is installed.

7. List four criteria for evaluating system hardware.

   They are time required for average transactions, total volume capacity of the system, idle time of the central processing unit, and size of memory provided.

8. What two main options do organizations have for acquiring or using computer hardware?

   They are buying hardware, and using cloud services.

9. What does COTS stand for?

   COTS is an acronym for commercial off-the-shelf.

10. List five of the many benefits of cloud computing for organizations.

    The benefits of cloud computing for organizations are:

    • Less time spent maintaining legacy systems or performing routine tasks such as maintenance or upgrading of present systems.
    • Possibly making it simpler to acquire IT services and making it easier and quicker to separate from or discontinue services that are no longer necessary.
    • Making your applications scalable.
    • Providing consistency across multiple platforms perhaps previously disjointed or difficult to integrate.
    • No capital is tied up, and no financing is required.

11. List three of the many drawbacks of cloud computing for organizations.

    The drawbacks of cloud computing are:

    • The loss of control of data stored in the cloud.
    • If the cloud services provider ceased to exist, it is unclear what would happen to the organization’s data.
    • Potential security threats to data that is not stored on premises or even on the organization’s own computers.
    • Reliability of the Internet as a platform.
    • The prospect that the company could get stuck using application programming interfaces (APIs) that are proprietary with the cloud provider.

12. What does BYOD stand for?

    BYOD stands for “bring your own device.”

13. What are the benefits of BYOD to an organization?

    The benefits of BYOD to an organization are a potential for lowering the initial cost of organizational IT hardware purchase, and facilitating remote ’round–the-clock access to corporate computer networks regardless of location.

14. What are the benefits of BYOD to an employee?

    The benefits of BYOD to an employee are building employee morale and building on a familiar user interface to access corporate computing services, applications, databases, and storage. Employees also do not need to carry a personal and a work-issued device.

15. What is the biggest drawback of BYOD for an organization?

    The biggest drawback of BYOD for an organization is the security risks posed by untrained users.

16. What are three main categories of cloud computing?

    The three main categories of cloud computing are Software as a Service (SaaS), Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), and Platform as a Service (PaaS).

17. Define tangible costs and benefits. Give an example of each one.

    Tangible costs are those that can be accurately projected by systems analysts and the business’ accounting personnel; for example, the cost of equipment, costs of resources, and cost of systems analysts’ time. Tangible benefits are advantages measurable in dollars that accrue to the organization through use of the information system; for example, increase in speed of processing, and getting information on a timelier basis than before.

18. Define intangible costs and benefits. Give an example of each one.

    Intangible costs are those that are difficult to estimate, and may not be known; for example, the cost of losing a competitive edge, and declining company image. Intangible benefits are advantages from the use of the information system that are difficult to measure; for example, improved effectiveness of decision-making processes and maintaining a good business image.

19. List four techniques for comparing the costs and benefits of a proposed system.

    They are break-even analysis, payback, cash-flow analysis, and present value methods.

20. When is calculating the payback period useful?

    Payback period is useful when a business is growing and volume is a key variable in costs.

21. What are the three drawbacks of using the payback method?

    The three drawbacks of the payback method are:

    • It is strictly a short-term approach to investment and replacement decision.
    • It does not consider the importance of how repayments are timed.
    • It does not consider total returns from the proposed systems project that may go well beyond the payback year.

22. What is work breakdown structure (WBS), and when should it be used?

    A work breakdown structure (WBS) is the tasks or activities that a project is broken down into. Each task has a deliverable and is assigned to an individual or team, and has a responsible person monitoring and controlling performance.

23. What is a Gantt chart?

    A Gantt chart is a chart on which bars represent each task or activity. The length of each bar represents the relative length of the task.

24. When is a PERT diagram useful for systems projects?

    PERT charts are useful when activities can be done in parallel rather than in sequence.

25. List three advantages of a PERT diagram over a Gantt chart for scheduling systems projects.

    Three advantages of a PERT chart over a Gantt chart are:

    • Easier identification of the order of precedence.
    • Easier identification of the critical path and critical activities.
    • Easier determination of slack time.

26. Define the term critical path.

    The critical path is the path that will cause the whole project to fall behind schedule if one day’s delay is encountered on it.

27. How does a project manager assess the risk of things going wrong and take that into consideration of the time needed to complete the project?

    The project manager must look at the size of the project. If it is large, it should be broken down into smaller projects. Another factor is team members may take longer on their current project or that key managers would not be able to interview during the needs requirement phase. The project manager must add some additional time as a buffer.

28. What costs need to be estimated to prepare a budget?

    The costs that need to be estimated to prepare a budget are the hours worked and the rates of pay for each of the internal or outsourced workers, the hardware and software costs and how much of each type of equipment is needed, and the costs involved with training.

29. Why is preparing a budget so important for a systems analyst who is managing a project?

    Preparing a budget is a critical deliverable and is important for a systems analyst who is managing a project because every client wants to see a detailed budget early in the process.

30. What three instances call for expediting a systems project?

    The three instances that call for expediting a systems project are getting a bonus if you finish sooner, project team resources and team members can be used for some other project, reducing the time it takes to complete an entire project.

31. What does crash time mean when expediting a project?

    When expediting a project, crash time means the absolute minimum time in which an activity can be completed if additional money is funneled to that activity.

32. What is earned value management (EVM)?

    Earned value management (EVM) is a technique used to help determine progress or setbacks on a project.

33. What are the four key measures in earned value management?

    The four key measures in earned value management are budget at completion (BAC), planned value (PV), actual cost (AC), and earned value (EV).

34. For what purposes can a systems analyst use earned value management?

    The purposes that a systems analyst can use earned value management are to be aware of cost and address the budgetary implications when unexpected delays or cost overruns occur.

35. List the two types of team leaders.

    Two types of team leaders are:

    • Task leaders
    • Socioemotional leaders

36. What is meant by dysfunctional team norm?

    A dysfunctional team norm is a norm that hinders team progress.

37. What is meant by team process?

    “Team process” is the interaction that occurs among team members.

38. What are three reasons that goal setting seems to motivate systems analysis team members?

    Three reasons that goal setting motivates team members are:

    • The very act of setting challenging and achievable goals and periodically measuring performance against the goal seems to motivate individuals.
    • Team members know exactly what is expected of them and are afforded some autonomy in achieving the goal.
    • The setting of goals clarifies what must be done in order to get results.

39. What are four ways in which ecommerce project management differs from traditional project management?

    The four ways that ecommerce project management differs from traditional project management are:

    • The data used by ecommerce systems is scattered across the organization.
    • Ecommerce systems need a staff with a wide variety of skills.
    • Partnerships must be built externally and internally well ahead of implementation.
    • Security is of utmost importance.

40. What elements are contained in a project charter?

    The project charter contains the following elements:

    • User expectations or objectives and how the system will achieve the objectives.
    • The scope or boundaries of the project.
    • The analysis methods used to interact with users in gathering data, developing, and testing the system.
    • The key participants and how much time users are willing and able to commit to participating.
    • The project deliverables.
    • The people that will evaluate the system and how they will evaluate it.
    • The estimated project timeline and how often the project milestones are reported.
    • The people that will train the users.
    • The people that will maintain the system.

41. What is a fishbone diagram used for?

    A fishbone diagram (also called a cause-and-effect diagram or an Ishikawa diagram) is used to illustrate what can go wrong in a project. It systematically lists all of the possible problems that can occur.

42. What are the three steps the systems analyst must follow to put together an effective systems proposal?

    They are effectively organizing the content, writing in a professional style, and orally presenting the proposal in an informative way.

43. List the 10 main sections of the systems proposal.

    The 10 main sections of the system proposal are:

    • Cover letter
    • Title page of project
    • Table of contents
    • Executive summary (including recommendations)
    • Outline of systems study with appropriate documentation
    • Detailed results of systems study
    • Systems alternatives (three or four possible solutions)
    • Systems analysts’ recommendations
    • Summary
    • Appendices (assorted documentation, summary of phases, correspondence, etc.)

Chapter 4: Information Gathering: Interactive Methods

1. What kinds of information should be sought in interviews?

   Interviews reveal information about interviewee opinions, interviewee feelings about the current state of the system, organizational and personal goals, and informal procedures.

2. List the five steps in interview preparation.

   The five steps in interview preparation are:

   • Reading background material
   • Establishing interview objectives
   • Deciding who to interview
   • Preparing the interviewee
   • Deciding on question types and structure

3. Define what is meant by open-ended interview questions. Give eight benefits and five drawbacks of using them.

   Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what length they wish. Eight benefits are:

   • Putting the interviewee at ease
   • Allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary, which reflects his or her education, values, attitudes, and beliefs
   • Providing richness of detail
   • Revealing avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped
   • Making it more interesting for the interviewee
   • Allowing more spontaneity
   • Making phrasing easier for the interviewer
   • Using them in a pinch if the interviewer is caught unprepared

   The five drawbacks include:

   • Asking questions that may result in too much irrelevant detail
   • Possibly losing control of the interview
   • Allowing responses that may take too much time for the amount of useful information gained
   • Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared
   • Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition” with no real objective for the interview

4. When are open-ended questions appropriate for use in interviewing?

   Open-ended questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply.

5. Define what is meant by closed interview questions. Give six benefits and four drawbacks of using them.

   Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses. Six benefits are:

   • Saving interview time
   • Easily comparing interviews
   • Getting to the point
   • Keeping control of the interview
   • Covering a large area quickly
   • Getting to relevant data

   Four drawbacks of closed interview questions include:

   • Being boring for the interviewee
   • Failing to obtain rich detail
   • Missing main ideas
   • Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee

6. When are closed questions appropriate for use in interviewing?

   Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy to analyze. The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer.

7. What is a probing question? What is the purpose of using a probing question in interviews?

   Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions. The purpose of probing questions is to go beyond the initial answer to get more meaning, to clarify, to draw out, and to expand on the interviewee’s point.

8. Define what is meant by pyramid structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?

   An interview structured like a pyramid begins with very detailed, often closed questions, and expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses. A pyramid structure is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or if interviewees seem reluctant to address the topic.

9. Define what is meant by funnel structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?

   A funnel structure begins with generalized, open-ended questions and concludes by narrowing the possible responses with the use of closed questions. The funnel structure is useful in providing an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview. The structure is also useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic and needs freedom to express those emotions.

10. Define what is meant by diamond-shaped structure. When is it useful to employ it in interviews?

    A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way, then general issues are examined, and finally concludes in a specific fashion. The diamond structure is useful in keeping the interviewee’s interest and attention through a variety of questions.

11. What are seven elements common to stories told by users in the organization?

    Seven elements common to stories told by users in the organization are:

    • The call to adventure
    • The quest
    • The struggle
    • The transformation
    • The resolution
    • The moral
    • The epilogue

12. What are the four reasons users tell stories to analysts?

    The four reasons users tell stories to analysts are:

    • To describe what life is like in the organization
    • To suggest that there is an explanation for behavior or a reason for the decisions made within the organization
    • To convince people that the organization made the correct decision, or they are used to express and maintain the existing values of the organization
    • To suggest how everyone in the organization should behave

13. Define Joint Application Design (JAD).

    Joint Application Design (JAD) is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design the user interface with the users in a group setting.

14. List the situations that warrant use of JAD in place of personal organizational interviews.

    The situations that warrant the use of JAD in place of personal interviews are:

    • Users are restless and want something new.
    • The organizational culture supports group problem-solving behaviors.
    • Extended group exercises will generate more ideas than one-on-one interviews.
    • Employees may be absent from jobs for the amount of time necessary to conduct the JAD session.

15. List the potential benefits of using joint application design.

    The potential benefits of using JAD are:

    • Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing
    • Rapid development of systems
    • Improved user ownership of the system
    • Creative idea production is improved

16. List the three potential drawbacks of using JAD as an alternative to personal interviews.

    The potential drawbacks of using JAD are:

    • JAD requires a large block of time be available for all session participants.
    • If JAD preparation is incomplete, or if the follow-up report and documentation is incomplete, the session may not be successful.
    • The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a JAD session.

17. What kinds of information is the systems analyst seeking through the use of questionnaires or surveys?

    Analysts using questionnaires are interested in information about attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and characteristics from several key people affected by the system.

18. List four situations that make the use of questionnaires appropriate.

    Four situations that make questionnaires appropriate are:

    • The respondents are widely dispersed.
    • Many people are involved in the systems project and it is meaningful to know what proportion of a given group approves or disapproves of a particular feature.
    • An exploratory study for gauging overall opinion is desired.
    • Problem sensing with the current system is desired.

19. What are the two basic question types used on questionnaires?

    The two basic question types used in questionnaires are open-ended and closed.

20. List two reasons why a systems analyst would use a closed question on a questionnaire.

    Two reasons for using a closed question are (a) when the systems analyst is able to effectively list all the possible responses to the question and (b) when the analyst wants to survey a large sample of people.

21. List two reasons why a systems analyst would use an open-ended question on a questionnaire.

    Two reasons for using open-ended questions on a questionnaire are (a) when it is impossible to list effectively all possible responses to the question and (b) when exploratory situations occur.

22. What are the seven guidelines for choosing language for the questionnaire?

    Seven guidelines for choosing language for the questionnaire are:

    • Use the language of respondents whenever possible.
    • Work at being specific rather than vague in wording.
    • Keep questions short.
    • Do not patronize respondents by talking down to them through low-level language choices.
    • Avoid bias in wording.
    • Target questions to the right respondents.
    • Ensure that questions are technically accurate before they are included.

23. Define what is meant by scaling.

    Scaling is the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to an attribute or characteristic for the purpose of measuring that attribute or characteristic.

24. What are two kinds of information or scales that systems analysts most commonly use?

    Two kinds of information that can be gained by the use of scales on questionnaires are (a) measuring attitudes or characteristics of the people answering the questionnaire and (b) having the respondents judge the subjects of the questionnaire.

25. What are nominal scales used for?

    Nominal scales are used to classify things into categories.

26. Give an example of an interval scale.

    Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale.

27. When should an analyst use an interval scale?

    An interval scale is used when it can be assumed that the intervals are equal, but there is no absolute zero.

28. Define reliability as it refers to the construction of scales.

    Reliability in the construction of scales refers to consistency in response.

29. Define validity as it refers to the construction of scales.

    Validity is the degree to which the question measures what the analyst intends to measure.

30. List three problems that can occur because of careless construction of scales.

    Three problems that can occur because of careless construction of scales are:

    • Leniency
    • Central tendency
    • Halo effect

31. What are four actions that can be taken to ensure that the questionnaire format is conducive to a good response rate?

    Four actions that can be taken to ensure that the questionnaire format is conducive to a good response rate are:

    • Allowing ample white space
    • Allowing adequate space for responses
    • Asking respondents to circle their answers
    • Using objectives to help determine format

32. Which questions should be placed first on the questionnaire?

    Questions of importance to respondents go first.

33. Why should questions on similar topics be clustered together?

    Similar topics should be clustered together to build a frame of reference for respondents.

34. What is an appropriate placement of controversial questions?

    Controversial questions should be positioned after less controversial questions.

35. List five methods for administering the questionnaire.

    Five methods of administering the questionnaire are:

    • Convening all concerned respondents together at one time
    • Personally handing out blank questionnaires and taking back completed ones
    • Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire at work and drop it in a centrally located box
    • Mailing questionnaires to employees and supplying a deadline, instructions, and return postage
    • Administrating the questionnaire electronically and receiving and storing the responses electronically

36. What considerations are necessary when questionnaires are Web based?

    When designing Web-based questionnaires, there must be ample space for open-ended questions and the appropriate use of check boxes, radio buttons, and drop-down menus. It is important to have both Submit and Clear buttons. The Web survey should provide a password system to help ensure confidentiality.

Chapter 7: Agile Modeling, Prototyping, and Scrum

1. What is one of the main methods available for the analyst to use when analyzing data-oriented systems?

   Data flow diagrams (DFDs).

2. What are the four advantages of using a data flow approach over narrative explanations of data movement?

   The four advantages of using data flow diagrams are:

   • Freedom from committing to the technical implementation of the system too early.
   • Further understanding of the interrelationships of systems and subsystems.
   • Communicating current system knowledge to users through data flow diagrams.
   • Analysis of the proposed system to determine if all the necessary data and processes have been defined.

3. What are the four data items that can be symbolized on a data flow diagram?

   They are an external entity, movement of data, the occurrence of a transforming process, a data store.

4. What is a context-level data flow diagram? Contrast it to a level 0 DFD.

   A context diagram is a diagram to conceptualize data flows within an organization. It usually is a list of external entities, data flows, processes, and data stores, which determines the boundary of the target system. On the other hand, a level 0 DFD is prepared to show an overview of the system including basic inputs, processes, and outputs.

5. Define the top-down approach as it relates to drawing data flow diagrams.

   An approach is to prepare DFDs for an overview of the system first, then add detailed aspects of the diagram. In other words, the diagrams move from general to specific.

6. Describe what “exploding” data flow diagrams means.

   It is a process to analyze the system further to identify more detailed aspects of inputs, processes, and outputs of the system.

7. What are the tradeoffs involved in deciding how far data streams should be exploded?

   Time may be wasted and understandability sacrificed if data flow diagrams are overly complex. On the other hand, if the data flow diagrams are unexploded, errors of omission could occur.

8. Why is labeling data flow diagrams so important? What can effective labels on data flow diagrams accomplish for those unfamiliar with the system?

   To make the diagrams truly communicative, meaningful labels of all data components are required. Effective labels can help someone unfamiliar with the system understand objectives, functions, and features of the system better.

9. What is the difference between a logical and physical data flow diagram?

   A logically-oriented data flow diagram shows how the business operates. A physically-oriented data flow diagram shows how the system will be implemented using technology and manual procedures.

10. List three reasons for creating a logical data flow diagram.

    A logically-oriented data flow diagram should be created for the following reasons:

    • Better communication with users
    • More stable systems
    • Increased understanding of the business by analysts
    • A more flexible system
    • Elimination of redundancy

11. List five characteristics of a physical data flow diagram that a logical data flow diagram does not have.

    Characteristics of a physical data flow diagram that are not found on a logical data flow diagram are:

    • Distinguishing which processes are manual and which are automated
    • Sequencing processes in the order they must be executed
    • Temporary data stores and transaction files
    • Specifying actual document and file names
    • Controls to ensure accuracy and completeness

12. When are transaction files required in a system’s design?

    Transaction files are used to link any processes that do not execute at the same time but share the same data.

13. How can an event table be used to create a data flow diagram?

    An event table is used to create a data flow diagram by analyzing each event and the data used and produced by the event. Every row in an event table represents a unique activity and is used to create one process on the data flow diagram.

14. List the major sections of a use case.

    The major sections of a use case are:

    • Use case name
    • Description
    • Trigger
    • Trigger type
    • Input name and source
    • Output name and destination
    • Steps performed
    • Information required for each step

15. How can a use case be used to create a data flow diagram?

    A use case is used to create a data flow diagram by providing a framework for obtaining processes, input, output, and data stores required for user activities.

16. What is partitioning, and how is it used?

    Partitioning is the process of dividing a data flow diagram into manual procedures and computer programs. It is used after the physical data flow diagram has been created by examining the processes and the data flowing from one process to another.

17. How can an analyst determine when a user interface is required?

    A user interface is required for data flow that connects a manual and an automated process or an automated process with an external entity that is a person.

18. List three ways of determining partitioning in a data flow diagram.

    The following are ways of determining partitioning on a data flow diagram:

    • Different user groups are in different programs
    • Processes that execute at different times are in separate programs
    • Processes that contain similar tasks may be included in the same program
    • Several batch processes may be included in the same program for efficiency
    • Several processes may be included in the same program or job stream for consistency of data
    • Processes may be separated into different programs for security

19. List three ways to use completed data flow diagrams.

    Completed DFDs can be used to ascertain both system and user information requirements, to interact with users further, and to document the system.

Chapter 8: Analyzing Systems Using Data Dictionaries

1. Define the term data dictionary. Define metadata.

   The data dictionary is a reference work of data about data compiled by the systems analysts to guide them through analysis and design. The metadata is a set of information to show some unique features of specific data/objects.

2. What are four reasons for compiling a complete data dictionary?

   By compiling a data dictionary, the systems analysts can avoid duplication of efforts, expect better communication between organizational departments sharing a database, make maintenance easier, and utilize it as a consistent standard for data elements.

3. What information is contained in the data repository?

   The data repository contains the following types of information:

   • Information about system data
   • Procedural logic
   • Screen and report design
   • Relationships between entries
   • Project requirements and deliverables
   • Project management information

4. What is a structural record?

   Data elements contain information about a specific type of data. Data structures are groups of data elements that are processed together. Data stores are holding places for data structures.

5. List the eight specific categories that each entry in the data dictionary should contain. Briefly give the definition of each category.

   The eight categories that each entry in the data dictionary should contain are:

   • Name of the data item: What the data item is commonly called in most programs
   • Alias for the data item
   • Description of the data item: A brief description in English of the data element
   • Data elements related to the entry: A list of other data elements related to the specific data entry
   • Range
   • Encoding
   • Editing information
   • Comments about the item

6. What are the basic differences among data dictionary entries prepared for data stores, data structures, and data elements?

   The basic difference among data stores, data structures, and data elements of a data dictionary is the type of required information for each entry. For example, the source of the data flow, the destination, and a brief English description are needed for data flows, whereas a list of inbound data flows and outbound data flows is required for data stores. For data structures, the name of the data structure, the symbolic designation, and a brief English description are needed.

7. Why are structural records used?

   Structural records are used so that the analyst does not need to repeat the specific elements every time the group of elements is part of a larger structure, such as a screen or a report. They may be used on an intermediate level of a data flow diagram, that is, one that is neither the top nor the bottom layer.

8. What is the difference between logical and physical data structures?

   Logical data structures list the elements that compose the structure as the user would view it. It may include iteration, selection, or sequence. Physical data structures include extra elements for implementing the records, such as a type code or a table entry count. Limits may be placed on the number of table entries within the structure.

9. Describe the difference between base and derived elements.

   A base element is one that has been initially keyed into the system. A derived element is one that is created by a process, usually as the result of a calculation or some logic.

10. How do the data dictionary entries relate to levels in a set of data flow diagrams?

    Whole structures on the data dictionary, such as the whole report or screen, are used on the top level of the data flow diagram—the context level or diagram zero. Data structures are used on intermediate level data flow diagrams and elements are used on lower level data flow diagrams.

11. List the four steps to take in compiling a data dictionary.

    • Enter processes
    • Catalogue basic data flows
    • Describe data structures
    • Break data structures into data elements

12. Why shouldn’t compiling the data dictionary be viewed as an end in itself?

    A system is usually interrelated with other systems in an organization. Thus, compilation of the data dictionary of a system should be considered as a part of a series of actions. Also, the maintenance of a data dictionary should be emphasized.

13. What are the main benefits of using a data dictionary?

    A data dictionary can be used to:

    • Save systems analysts time and effort in the project
    • Facilitate communication between the systems analysts and users, and users to one another
    • Help users with better understanding of the system
    • Provide effective systems documentation
    • Create reports, screens, and forms
    • Generate computer program source code
    • Analyze the system design for completion and to detect design flaws

14. What does extensible markup language (XML) describe?

    XML describes the organization of data that may be exchanged between computers.

15. What is a document type definition?

    A document type definition contains a definition of the structure of an XML document.

16. How does a document type definition help to ensure that an XML document contains all necessary elements?

    The document type definition validates that the XML document conforms to the definition of the data. Validation is done using standard XML tools.

17. When should attributes be used in an XML document?

    Attributes are included within an XML element tag and should describe something about the XML element.

18. What does an ID attribute ensure?

    An ID attribute ensures that the value for the attribute may appear only once for any ID within the XML document.

19. What does an IDREF attribute validate?

    An IDREF attribute links one element with another element that has an ID attribute.

Chapter 9: Process Specifications and Structured Decisions

1. List three reasons for producing process specifications.

   Three reasons for producing process specifications are:

   • Reduce the ambiguity or vagueness of the process.
   • Obtain a precise description of what is accomplished.
   • Validate the system design, including data flow diagrams and the data dictionary.

2. Define what is meant by a structured decision.

   A structured decision is a decision for which a representative model can be built or automated easily. It usually involves specific and single objectives which are not difficult to achieve.

3. What four elements must be known for the systems analyst to design systems for structured decisions?

   They are conditions, condition alternatives, actions, and action rules.

4. What are the two building blocks of structured English?

   The two building blocks of structured English are:

   • Structured logic or instructions organized into nested and grouped procedures.
   • Simple English statements such as add, multiply, move, and so on.

5. List five conventions that should be followed when using structured English.

   The five conventions to be followed when using structured English are:

   • Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision structures, case structures, or iterations.
   • Use and capitalize accepted keywords such as IF, THEN, ELSE, DO, DO WHILE, DO UNTIL, and PERFORM.
   • Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy (nesting) clearly.
   • When words or phrases used have been defined in a data dictionary, underline those words or phrases to signify that they have a specialized, reserved meaning.
   • Be careful when using “and” and “or,” and avoid confusion when distinguishing between “greater than” and “greater than or equal to” and other logical comparisons.

6. What is the advantage of using structured English to communicate with people in the organization?

   Systems analysts can clarify the logic and relationships found in human languages and expect better communication between themselves and end users by using structured English. Also, structured English is easy to teach and understand.

7. Which quadrant of the decision table is used for conditions? Which is used for condition alternatives?

   The upper-left quadrant contains the conditions; the upper-right quadrant contains the condition alternatives.

8. What is the first step to take in developing a decision table?

   The first step in developing decision tables is the determination of the number of conditions that may affect the decision. The number of conditions becomes the number of rows in the top half of the decision table.

9. List the four main problems that can occur in developing decision tables.

   The four main problems that can occur in developing decision tables are incompleteness, impossible situations, contradictions, and redundancy.

10. What is one way to reduce the complexity of unwieldy decision tables?

    One of the ways to reduce the complexity of unwieldy decision tables is to use extended entries, use the ELSE rule, or construct multiple tables.

11. What is one of the major advantages of decision tables over other methods of decision analysis?

    One of the major advantages of using decision tables over other methods is that decision tables help analysts ensure completeness. It is also easy to check for possible errors, such as impossible situations, contradictions, and redundancy.

12. What are the main uses of decision trees in systems analysis?

    Systems analysts can use decision trees when complex branching occurs in a structured decision process. Decision trees are also useful when it is essential to keep a string of decisions in a particular sequence.

13. List the four major steps in building decision trees.

    The four major steps in building decision trees are:

    • Identify the conditions.
    • Identify the condition alternatives.
    • Identify the actions.
    • Identify action rules (in order).

14. What three advantages do decision trees have over decision tables?

    • The order of checking conditions and executing actions is immediately noticeable.
    • Conditions and actions of decision trees are found on some branches but not on others.
    • Decision trees are more readily understood by others in the organization.

15. In which two situations should you use structured English?

    Structured English is useful when there are many repetitious actions or when communication to end users is important.

16. In which two situations do decision tables work best?

    Decision tables are useful when complex combinations of conditions, actions, and rules are found or you require a method that effectively avoids impossible situations, redundancies, and contradictions.

17. In which two situations are decision trees preferable?

    Decision trees are preferable when the sequence of conditions and actions is critical or not every condition is relevant to every action.